Community Based Participation

The Basic Idea

In community development work, there are two dominant approaches, "top-down" and "bottom-up". Encouragement of participation by local citizens in a community or group is definitely "bottom-up" in its approach.

Generating participation is not always an easy task. If there have been a long succession o top-down" projects (in reality if not in lip service), the chance are that there will be a lot of tradition built up of waiting for services to be delivered. There ma well be a lack of skills within the community with which to work as well, especially if there have been few other projects within which people can hone their skills.

People like significant participation in meetings and in projects but do not particularly appreciate being involved in a token capacity.

One tool for sorting out agenda items for meetings which Murray Sands gave me a few years ago is particularly helpful at the meeting level: Murray Sands, a former administrator in the Ottawa School Board gave me his handy-dandy checklist which he used to screen agenda items for any group. I found it very helpful over the years:

3Tests for an agenda Item:

1. Test for expertise. Too much input before a decision is not good. Insufficient expertise is disastrous. Therefore, build it up slowly.
2. Test of Jurisdiction. Does this assembly have the authority to make the decision?
3. Test of Relevance. The item should be relevant to all members of the group. They should all be able to answer "what is in it for me?". Groups should not be solving other people's problems.

The leader has to be autocratic at the agenda setting (and amendment) time in order to keep from wasting people's time.

It is interesting the Murray distinguishes between the times when a leader should be "authoritative" and when democratic", not whether a leader should act that way

One related issue that needs to be raised with ongoing groups is that of the relative importance of socializing. As one Church administrator put it to me, "Church meetings have very little to do with business, and very much to do with relating." (Give me a break!). If that issue is put on the table and resolved to everyone's satisfaction, I believe it would help the stress levels and enjoyment of participation greatly.

The empowerment of people as individuals and groups and communities can be a very satisfying part of the RCD job.

Off-Line Resources

• Smith,B.C. "Participation without Power: Subterfuge or Development?" Community Development Journal, Vol33., NO.3,1998. (p.197-204).Reprinted in Ferrazzi, Gabe. Course Reader, Rural Community Development, Brandon University, 2001.
  This social-work oriented article gives five forms of participation by people with little or no power in the community. The Author notes that in some situations this very low level of participation may be a significant advancement. The five forms he outlines are:
  1. Utilization - increasing use of services
  2. Contrubutions - they pay for services
  3. enlistment - they work on the project
  4. co-operation - they co-operate with he project
  5. Consultation - they give feedback on the project

• Lemmel,Larry. "A non-Governmental, Consent- Based Model of Citizenship and Civic Engagement" Vanguard vol33,Issue 1, March 2001.(p3-5). Reprinted in Ferrazzi, Gabe. Course Reader, Rural Community Development, Brandon University, 2001.
  Perhaps an idea of where this author comes from is to be seen in is photo on the front...he's middle aged, sits backwards on his chair and has a beard (grin). This article is a bottom-up "pubic-access-TV" (user) type of focus, which appeals to those of that persuasion. To me it seem s what he is referring to is a glorified service group.

• Lammerink, Marc P. "Community Managed Rural Water Supply: experiences form participatory action research in Kenya, Cameroon, Nepal, Guatemala and Colombia" Community Development Journal Vol.33 No. 4, 1998,(p.342-52).Reprinted in Ferrazzi, Gabe. Course Reader, Rural Community Development, Brandon University, 2001.
  24 Communities in 6 countries are examined. A Dutch "Participatory Action Research" project is carried out to find out what works best to get local, gender-sensitive management of local water supplies, and the principles for them. The authors point out that the PAR model is not only a good research tool, but it is also a good community development tool in that it developed the local problem solving skill capacity in the participating communities. Local people implemented the instrument in each contest which helped make it suited for each context.

• Fast, Manfred. "Communities Can Make It Happen: Forging the Port Colborne, Ontario, Strategic Plan". Small Town, July-Aug. 1995.(p10-15).Reprinted in Ferrazzi, Gabe. Course Reader, Rural Community Development, Brandon University, 2001.
  This article outlines the aspects of a visioning process (70%) with its resulting town plan (30%). It is a participatory process which uses invited key people to generate a joint plan. The process generates a snapshot of the town as the people want it over the next 10-15 years and what they think will be needed to get there. Port Colborne's successful development plan process is used as an illustrative example.

• Kreough, Noel. "Participatory Development Principles and practice: Reflections of a western development worker". Community Development Journal. Vol.33.No3.Jul 1898 (p187-196)Reprinted in Ferrazzi, Gabe. Course Reader, Rural Community Development, Brandon University, 2001.
  This article is a retrospective reflection of a CD worker which is designed to put in a bridge piece between CD philosophical underpinnings and actual practice. He outlines ten tips he has for people using PAR, PRA and appropriate technology:
  1. Humility and respect
  2. heed local knowledge
  3. democratic
  4. diverse ways of knowing
  5. sustainability
  6. reality before theory
  7. embrace uncertainty
  8. time and efficiency are relative
  9. holistic
  10. community
  He notes the difference between power bases of workers and a community as well as between communities.

• Lackey, Alvin S., Mark Paterson and Jeff Pine. "Participatory Evaluation: a Tool For Community Development Practitioners" Journal of the Community Development Society, Vol12,No.1, 1981,(p.83-102).
  The idea of this article is to give a lit review and show community members how to use this tool for their own purposes. Their instrument is given in the appendix. It looks at water and roads and a spin off of a youth association. Capacity was raised they felt. They recommend:
  • thet the community decide if they want an evaluation done
  • and if they do, what approach (participatory?)

• Uphoff, Norman. "Learning About And For Participation: From Theoretical and Empirical Studies to Practical Experience, and Back to Theory" Canadian Journal of Development Studies, Vol. xix, No 3, 1998. (p.437-460).Reprinted in Ferrazzi, Gabe. Course Reader, Rural Community Development, Brandon University, 2001.
  This article details the change form "humans to use capital" to "capital to empower humans". He looks at Sri Lanka water projects (and others) where a learning and participation model results in large results in co-operation and efficiency. He is into "ideas" as important in development not just the nuts and bolts stuff.

• Vainio-Mattila, Arja. "The Seduction and Significance of Participation for Development Interventions", Canadian Journal of Development Studies, Vol.xxi, Special issue, 2000.(p.431-45). Reprinted in Ferrazzi, Gabe. Course Reader, Rural Community Development, Brandon University, 2001.
  This study looks at participation in development in relation to the international scene because there is so much talk about it but so little change of the old philosophy by development agencies. He feels that participatory development and current structures are incompatible especially at the local level. He sees empowerment as key to the whole larger scene. No major donor organization has restructured to do it, but a lot of organizations talk about it.

• Ferrazzi, Gabe. "Participation" . Rural Community Development Introductory Modules,(WebCT class notes). Brandon University, Fall, 2001.Module # 3-d .
  Gabe's notes on participation focus on three landmarks in the developmental of the philosophy and practice:
  1. Sherry Arnstein's ladder of participation which ranges from non participation through tokenism to genuine citizen power
  2. Saul Alinski's 13 rules for radicals
  3. The current International view which has moved from tokenism to a greater degree of participation.